Wednesday 20 May 2015
Cervical Cancer
What is cervical cancer?
Cervical cancer begins in the cells lining the cervix - the lower part of the uterus (womb). This is sometimes called the cervix. The fetus grows in the body of the uterus (the top). The cervix connects the body of the uterus to the vagina (birth canal). The part of the cervix closest to the body of the uterus is called the endocervix. The next part of the vagina is the ectocervix (or ectocervix). The 2 main types of cells lining the cervix are squamous cell (the ectocervix) and glandular cells (the endocervix). These types of cells 2 are in a place that is called the transformation zone. The exact location of the transformation zone changes as you get older and if you give birth.
Most cervical cancers begin in cells in the transformation zone. These cells do not suddenly change into cancer. In contrast, normal cells of the cervix first precancerous changes that become cancer develop gradually. Doctors use several terms to describe these pre-cancerous changes, including cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL), and dysplasia. These changes can be detected by the Pap test and treated to prevent the development of cancer (see "Can you prevent cervical cancer?").
Cervical pre-cancers and cervical cancers are classified by their appearance under the microscope. The main types of cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.
Most (up to 9 in 10) cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. These cancers form cells from the ectocervix and cancer cells are squamous cell characteristics under the microscope. Squamous cell carcinomas most often begin in the transformation zone (where the ectocervix joins the endocervix).
Most other types of cervical cancers are adenocarcinomas. Adenocarcinomas are cancers that develop from gland cells. Cervical adenocarcinoma develops from the cells of mucus-producing glands of the endocervix. Cervical adenocarcinomas seem to have become more common in the last 20-30 years.
Less commonly, cervical cancer have features of both squamous and adenocarcinoma cells. These are called adenosquamous carcinomas or mixed carcinomas.
Although cervical cancers start from cells with pre-cancerous changes (pre-cancers), only some women with precancerous lesions of the cervix will develop cancer. It usually takes several years for cervical pre-cancer to change for cervical cancer, but it can happen in less than a year. For most women, precancerous cells disappear without treatment. However, in some women pre-cancers become true cancers (invasive). Treatment of all cervical pre-cancers can prevent almost all true cancers of the cervix. Precancerous changes and specific types of treatment for pre-cancers are discussed in our document on Prevention of Cervical Cancer and early detection.
Although almost all cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas or adenocarcinomas, other types of cancer can also develop in the cervix. These other types such as melanoma, sarcoma, lymphoma, and most commonly occur in other body parts.
Endometrial (uterine) cancer
What is endometrial cancer?
Endometrial cancer begins in the endometrium, the inner lining of the uterus (womb). The picture below shows where the uterus removed.
About the uterus and endometrium
The uterus is a hollow body, which is normally about the size and shape of a medium sized bulb. The uterus is where a fetus grows and develops when a woman is pregnant. The uterus has 2 main parts (see picture below):
The cervix of the uterus, the lower end extending into the vagina.
The upper part of the uterus is called the body or corpus. (Corpus is the Latin word for body.)
Even if the cervix is technically part of the uterus, when people talk about cancer of the uterus, they usually mean the body, not the cervix.
The body of the uterus has 2 main layers. The inner layer or lining is called the endometrium. Known, the outer layer of the muscle as the myometrium. This thick layer of muscle is needed to push out the baby during birth. The coating of the outside of the uterine tissue is the serosa.
During the female menstrual cycle, hormones cause the endometrium to change. During the first half of the cycle, before the ovaries an egg (ovulation), the ovaries produce hormones called estrogens. Estrogen causes the uterine lining to thicken, making it to nourish an embryo if pregnancy occurs. If it has produced no pregnancy, estrogen in a small amount and the hormone progesterone after ovulation. This prepares the innermost layer of the lining to shed. By the end of the cycle, the endometrium is shed from the uterus and menstruation (period). This cycle repeats itself until the woman goes through the menopause (menopause).
Cancer of the uterus and endometrium
The 2 main types of cancer of the uterus, are:
Uterine sarcomas, the start of the uterus in the muscular layer (myometrium) or supportive tissue. These include uterine leiomyosarcoma and endometrial stromal sarcomas. These cancers are not covered here, but are described in detail in the uterine sarcomas discussed.
Endometrial carcinomas, which in the cells of the inner lining of the uterus (the endometrium). Almost all cancers of the uterus are this type. These cancers are the focus of the rest of this information.
Endometrial can be divided into several types, depending on how the cells look under a microscope (histologic types). This includes:
Adenocarcinoma, (most endometrial cancers are adenocarcinomas)
Carcinosarcoma (more below)
Squamous
Undifferentiated carcinoma
Small cell carcinoma
Transitional carcinoma
The most common type known as endometrioid adenocarcinoma cancer. Endometrioid cancers consist of cells in glands that are similar to the normal uterine lining (endometrium) made her look. Some of these cancers include squamous cells (squamous cells are flat, thin cells that can be found on the outer surface of the cervix), and glandular cells. A cancer with both types of cells is called an adenocarcinoma with squamous differentiation. If, under the microscope, the glandular cells look cancer but the squamous cells do not, the tumor can be called a adenoacanthoma. If both the squamous cells and glandular cells look malignant (cancerous), these tumors adenosquamous (or mixed cell) carcinomas are called. There are other variants (or subtypes) endometrioid cancers, such as secretory carcinoma, ciliated carcinoma and adenocarcinoma villoglandular.
Clear-cell carcinoma, mucinous adenocarcinoma and papillary serous adenocarcinoma. are rare types of endometrial adenocarcinomas. These types are more aggressive than most endometrial cancers generally. They tend to grow quickly, and often spread outside the uterus at the time of diagnosis.
Classification endometrial
Doctors sometimes classify endometrial based on their perspectives and the underlying causes.
The grade of endometrial cancer is, how much the cancer forms glands that look is based found similar in normal healthy endometrium. In low-grade cancers, more of the cancerous tissue forming glands. In more significant cancers, more of the cancer cells in a random or arranged so disorganized and not form glands.
Grade 1 tumors have 95% or more of the cancerous tissue forming glands.
Grade 2 tumors between 50% and 94% of the cancerous tissue forming glands.
Grade 3 tumors have less than half of the forming gland cancer tissue. Grade 3 cancers are "high-grade" means. They tend to be aggressive and have a poorer outlook than lower grade cancers (grades 1 and 2).
Type 1 endometrial cancers are thought to be caused by excess estrogen. Sometimes they develop from atypical hyperplasia, an abnormal overgrowth of cells in the endometrium (see section Factors Risk). Type 1 cancers are usually not very aggressive and are slow to other tissues. Grades 1 and 2 endometrioid cancers are "Type 1" endometrial cancers.
Type 2 endometrial form a small number of endometrial cancers. Experts are not sure what causes type 2 cancers, but they do not seem to be caused by too much estrogen. Type 2 cancers include all endometrial carcinomas, which are not of type 1, papillary serous carcinoma such as, clear cell carcinoma, undifferentiated carcinoma, and endometrioid carcinoma grade 3. These cancers do not look at all like normal endometrium and so are "poorly differentiated" or "high-grade". Since type 2 tumors are more likely to grow and spread outside the uterus, a poorer outlook (than type 1 they have cancer). Doctors tend to treat these cancers more aggressive.
Uterine carcinosarcoma (CS) starts in the endometrium and has features of both endometrial carcinoma and sarcoma. In the past, CS was considered a type of uterine sarcoma, but doctors now believe that CS is a cancer that is abnormal and so no longer looks much like the cells (poorly differentiated) came.
Uterine CS is considered a type 2 endometrial cancer. CS tumors known as malignant tumors or malignant mixed mesodermal mixed tumors Müller (MMMTs). They make up about 4% of uterine cancer.
Leukemia - Acute Lymphocytic
What is acute lymphoblastic leukemia?
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), which is also known as acute lymphoblastic leukemia, a cancer that starts in the bone marrow lymphocytes called by the early release of white blood cells (the soft inner part of bones, are formed in the new blood cells).
Leukemia cells invade usually the blood relatively quickly. You can then spread to other parts of the body including lymph nodes, liver, spleen, central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and testes (in men). Other cancers can start in these organs and then spread to the bone marrow, but these cancers are not leukemia.
The term "acute" means that the leukemia progress rapidly, and if it is not treated, would probably be fatal within a few months. Lymphatic means developed by early (immature) forms of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cells. This is different from acute myeloid leukemia (AML), which develops in other types of blood cells in the bone marrow. For more information about AML, see document Leukemia - Acute Myeloid.
Other types of cancer that start in lymphocytes are known as lymphomas (non-Hodgkin's lymphoma or Hodgkin's disease). The main difference between these types of cancer is that leukemias as all mainly affects the bone marrow and the blood, and can spread to other places, while lymphoma primarily affect the lymph nodes or other organs, but can affect the bone marrow. Sometimes cancer lymphocytes are found in both the bone marrow and lymph nodes, if the cancer is diagnosed for the first time, making it hard to tell whether the cancer leukemia or lymphoma. If more than 25% of the bone marrow is replaced by cancer lymphocytes, the disease usually as leukemia. The size of the lymph nodes is also important. The bigger they are, the more likely the disease will be as a lymphoma. For more information about lymphoma, please see documents Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and Hodgkin's disease.
In fact, there are many types of leukemia. They differ, what types of cells, they start in, how fast they grow, the people they affect based, and how they are treated. Leukemia to understand, it helps to know about the blood and lymph systems.
Normal bone marrow, blood and lymphatic
Bone marrow
Bone marrow is the soft inner part of some bones such as the skull, shoulder blades, ribs, pelvis and bones in the spine. The bone marrow is made up of a small number of blood stem cells, more mature blood-forming cells, fat cells and supporting tissue made to help the cells grow.
Blood stem cells go through a series of changes to make new blood cells. Here, the cells develop into 1 of the 3 types of blood cell components:
Red Blood Cells
Platelets
White blood cells (lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes are)
Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to all other tissues in the body and take carbon dioxide back to the lungs to be removed.
Platelets
Platelets are cell fragments called actually made by a type of bone marrow cells megakaryocytes. Platelets are in plugging holes in blood vessels caused by cuts or bruises important.
White Blood Cells
White blood cells help the body fight infections.
Lymphocytes
These are the main cells, lymph tissue, form a major part of the immune system. Lymphoid tissues in lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils and adenoids, and is scattered throughout the digestive and respiratory systems and the bone marrow.
Lymphocytes develop from cells called lymphoblasts to mature, infection-fighting cells to be. The two types of lymphocytes B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T-cells).
B lymphocytes: B lymphocytes protect the body from invading germs by maturing into plasma cells which proteins to make so-called antibodies. The antibody binds to the germs (bacteria, viruses and fungi), which helps to destroy the immune system.
T-lymphocytes: There are various types of T-cells, each with a special task. Some T cells can directly destroy bacteria, while others play a role either increase or slowing the activity of other immune system cells.
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia develops from early forms of lymphocytes. It can either start in early B-cells or T-cells in different stages of ripeness. This is described in the section: "How is acute lymphocytic leukemia classified?"
Granulocytes
These are white blood cells that granules in them, the spots that can be seen under the microscope, can be had. These granules contain enzymes and other substances that can destroy germs, such as bacteria. The 3 types of granulocytes - neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils - are characterized by the size and color of their granules.
Monocytes
These white blood cells, granulocytes are used, also help the body against bacteria. After typing in the bloodstream for about a day, monocytes body tissue macrophages that destroy some germs by surrounding and digesting them, can be.
Development of leukemia
Any kind of early hematopoietic cells of the bone marrow to turn into a leukemia cell. Once this change takes place, the leukemia cells do not mature normally. Could reproduce the leukemia cells quickly, and perhaps do not die when they should. Instead, they will survive and build up in the bone marrow. Over time, these cells spill into the bloodstream and other organs, where they spread keep other cells of normal functioning.
Leukemias
There are 4 types of leukemia:
Acute myeloid (or myelogenous) leukemia (AML)
Chronic myeloid (or myelogenous) leukemia (CML)
Acute Lymphocytic (or lymphoblastic) leukemia (ALL)
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)
Acute leukemia versus chronic leukemia
The first factor in classifying leukemia is whether most of the abnormal cells mature (look like normal white blood cells) or immature (more like stem cells) are.
Acute leukemia: In acute leukemia, the bone marrow cells can not mature properly. Immature leukemia cells continue to reproduce and build. Without treatment, most people would live with acute leukemia only a few months. Some types of acute leukemia respond well to treatment, and many patients can be cured. Other types of acute leukemia have a less favorable outlook.
Chronic leukemia: In chronic leukemia, the cells in part, but can not fully mature. These cells may look fairly normal, but they are usually not fight infection as well as do normal white blood cells. They also live longer, build up, and crowd out normal cells. Chronic leukemias are progressing normally over a longer period, and most people can live for many years. But chronic leukemias are generally harder to cure than acute leukemias.
Myeloid leukemia compared lymphocytic leukemia
The second factor in the classification of leukemias is the type of bone marrow cells that are affected.
Myeloid leukemia: leukemia, beginning in early forms of myeloid cells - the cells, the white blood cells (other than lymphocytes), red blood cells or platelets makes cells (megakaryocytes) - are myeloid leukemias (also called myelocytic, myelogenous known, or non-lymphoid leukemia).
Lymphoblastic leukemia: leukemia that will begin in immature forms of lymphocytes lymphatic leukemias (also known as lymphoid or lymphoblastic leukemia).
Cancer in Adolescents
What are the types of cancer in teenagers?
There is no strict definition of what separates "childhood cancer" of cancers in adolescents, or when exactly a person with cancer is considered an adult. However, for statistical purposes, cancers in adolescents are often considered the beginning between the ages of 15 and 19.
Cancer is not common in teenagers, but a wide variety of cancers can occur in this age group, and treatment of these cancers can be challenging for a number of reasons.
The vast majority of cancers occur in older adults. The most common types of cancer in adults are skin, lung, colorectal, breast (in women), and prostate (in men). Many adult cancers are related to risk factors related to lifestyle (such as smoking, being overweight or obese, or lack of physical activity) or other environmental factors. A small part are strongly influenced by changes in the DNA (genetic mutations) of a person who inherit from their parents.
Cancers that begin in childhood (before age 15) are much less common. Cancers that develop in children are often different from the types that develop in adults. Childhood cancers are often the result of changes in the DNA of cells that develop very early in life, sometimes even before birth. Unlike many cancers in adults, childhood cancers are not strongly linked to lifestyle or environmental risk factors.
The types of cancer that occur in adolescents are a mixture of many types that can develop in children and adults.
The most common cancers in adolescents
The types of cancers seen in adolescents (ages 15-19) are not unique to this age group, but the most common types are different from those of small children or adults.
The most common cancers in adolescents are:
Lymphomas (Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin lymphoma)
Leukemia (acute lymphocytic leukemia majority [ALL] and acute myeloid leukemia [AML])
Thyroid cancer
Brain and spinal cord tumors
Testicular cancer
Bone tumors (osteosarcoma and Ewing)
Soft tissue tumors (sarcomas)
Melanoma
Ovarian cancer
Many other types of cancer can occur in adolescents as well - these are only the most common types.
Lymphomas
Lymphomas start in certain immune system cells called lymphocytes. These cancers most often affect the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues such as the tonsils, or thymus (a small organ in front of the heart). They can also affect the bone marrow and other organs. They cause different symptoms depending on the location of the cancer. The most common symptoms include weight loss, fever, sweating, fatigue and projections (swollen lymph nodes) under the skin in the neck, armpit or groin.
There are two main types of lymphoma:
Hodgkin lymphoma (Hodgkin's disease)
NHL
Both types can occur in adolescents.
Hodgkin's lymphoma is more common in two age groups: adult (aged 15-40, usually people in their 20s) and late adulthood (after 55 years). This type of cancer is similar in all age groups, including what types of treatment work better.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is less common than Hodgkin disease in adolescents, but the risk of NHL increases as people age. There are many types of NHL. Some of the types most frequently observed in adolescents tend to grow rapidly and require intensive treatment, but also tend to respond better to treatment than older adults NHL.
For more information on these cancers, see our documents Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in children.
Leukemias
Leukemias are cancers of the bone marrow and blood. They are the most common cancers in children, but can occur at any age, and in fact, most of leukemia occur in older adults.
Most teenagers are leukemias types (fast-growing) acute and acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Leukemia can cause tiredness, weakness, pale skin, bruising or bleeding, fever, weight loss, bone and joint pain, and other symptoms.
The outlook for the most acute leukemia tends to be better the younger the patient.
For more information, see our documents Childhood Leukemia - Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia and - acute myeloid (myelogenous).
Thyroid cancer
The risk of thyroid cancer tends to increase as people age, but is often at a younger age than most adult cancers age. It is much more common in young women than young men.
The most common symptom of thyroid cancer is a lump in the front of the neck. Most thyroid tumors are not cancerous, but it is important to have them checked to be sure. Other symptoms of thyroid cancer may include pain or swelling in the neck, difficulty swallowing or breathing and voice changes.
The possibility of curing these cancers is usually very good.
For more information, see our document Thyroid Cancer.
Brain and spinal cord tumors
There are many types of brain tumors and spinal cord, and treatment and prospects of each is different. In children, most brain tumors begin in the lower parts of the brain such as the cerebellum (which coordinates movement) or brainstem (which connects the brain to the spinal cord). Adults are more likely to develop tumors in the upper parts of the brain. Tumors in adolescents may occur in any area. Spinal cord tumors are less common than brain tumors in all age groups.
Brain tumors can cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, blurred or double vision, dizziness, seizures, trouble walking or handling objects, and other symptoms.
For more information, see our documents brain and spinal cord tumors in children and brain and spinal cord tumors in adults.
Testicular cancer
Testicular cancer occurs most often in young men. About half of testicular cancers occur in men between the ages of 20 and 34, but can occur at any age, even in adolescence.
Very often, the first symptom of testicular cancer is a lump in the testicle or testicles inflamed or larger. Some testicular tumors can be painful, but most often they are not. It is important to lumps checked by a doctor as soon as possible so that the cause can be found.
Overall, the outlook for testicular cancers is very good, and most of these cancers can be cured.
For more information, see our document, Testicular Cancer.
Bone and soft tissue tumors (sarcomas)
Sarcomas are cancers that begin in the connective tissues such as muscle, bone or fat cells. There are 2 main types of sarcoma: bone sarcomas and soft tissue sarcomas (starting in the muscles, fat, blood vessels or some other body tissues). Sarcomas can occur at any age, but some types occur more often in older children and adolescents.
Bone sarcomas: The 2 most common types of bone cancer, osteosarcoma and Ewing's sarcoma are more common in adolescents. They often cause bone pain that worsens at night or with activity. They can also cause swelling in the area around the bone.
Osteosarcoma usually starts in areas where the bone is growing rapidly, as near the ends of long bones of the legs or arms. The most common Ewing sarcoma places to start are the bones of the pelvis, chest wall (such as the ribs or shoulder blades), or in the middle of the long bones of the leg.
For more information, see our documents osteosarcoma and Ewing family of tumors.
Soft tissue sarcomas: These cancers can start anywhere in the body, but often develop in the arms or legs. Rhabdomyosarcoma, a cancer that begins in cells that normally develop into skeletal muscles, is more common in children under 10, but it also can develop in adolescents and adults. Most other types of soft tissue sarcomas become more common as people age. Symptoms depend on where the sarcoma starts, and may include packages (which may or may not cause pain), bloating or intestinal problems.
For more information, see our documents and rhabdomyosarcoma sarcoma - soft tissue cancer in adults.
Melanoma
Although melanoma is more likely to occur in older adults, it is a cancer that is also found in younger people, including adolescents. In fact, melanoma is one of the most common cancers in people under 30 (especially younger women). Melanoma that runs in families may occur at an earlier age.
The most important signal warning for melanoma is a new spot on the skin or a spot that is changing in size, shape or color. One point that is different from everyone else in the skin can also be a warning and should be checked by a doctor.
The ability to cure a melanoma is usually very good if discovered and treated early. But if left alone, it can grow and spread quickly, which can make it much more difficult to treat.
For more information, see our document, Skin Cancer - melanoma.
Ovarian cancer
General cancer, ovarian cancer is much more common in older women. However, some types of ovarian cancer, known as germ cell tumors are more common in adolescents and young women.
Early ovarian cancer usually causes no symptoms, but some adolescents and young women may feel full quickly when eating or having abnormal swelling, belly pain, or urinary symptoms. If these symptoms last longer than a few weeks, they should be checked by a doctor.
There is no strict definition of what separates "childhood cancer" of cancers in adolescents, or when exactly a person with cancer is considered an adult. However, for statistical purposes, cancers in adolescents are often considered the beginning between the ages of 15 and 19.
Cancer is not common in teenagers, but a wide variety of cancers can occur in this age group, and treatment of these cancers can be challenging for a number of reasons.
The vast majority of cancers occur in older adults. The most common types of cancer in adults are skin, lung, colorectal, breast (in women), and prostate (in men). Many adult cancers are related to risk factors related to lifestyle (such as smoking, being overweight or obese, or lack of physical activity) or other environmental factors. A small part are strongly influenced by changes in the DNA (genetic mutations) of a person who inherit from their parents.
Cancers that begin in childhood (before age 15) are much less common. Cancers that develop in children are often different from the types that develop in adults. Childhood cancers are often the result of changes in the DNA of cells that develop very early in life, sometimes even before birth. Unlike many cancers in adults, childhood cancers are not strongly linked to lifestyle or environmental risk factors.
The types of cancer that occur in adolescents are a mixture of many types that can develop in children and adults.
The most common cancers in adolescents
The types of cancers seen in adolescents (ages 15-19) are not unique to this age group, but the most common types are different from those of small children or adults.
The most common cancers in adolescents are:
Lymphomas (Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin lymphoma)
Leukemia (acute lymphocytic leukemia majority [ALL] and acute myeloid leukemia [AML])
Thyroid cancer
Brain and spinal cord tumors
Testicular cancer
Bone tumors (osteosarcoma and Ewing)
Soft tissue tumors (sarcomas)
Melanoma
Ovarian cancer
Many other types of cancer can occur in adolescents as well - these are only the most common types.
Lymphomas
Lymphomas start in certain immune system cells called lymphocytes. These cancers most often affect the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues such as the tonsils, or thymus (a small organ in front of the heart). They can also affect the bone marrow and other organs. They cause different symptoms depending on the location of the cancer. The most common symptoms include weight loss, fever, sweating, fatigue and projections (swollen lymph nodes) under the skin in the neck, armpit or groin.
There are two main types of lymphoma:
Hodgkin lymphoma (Hodgkin's disease)
NHL
Both types can occur in adolescents.
Hodgkin's lymphoma is more common in two age groups: adult (aged 15-40, usually people in their 20s) and late adulthood (after 55 years). This type of cancer is similar in all age groups, including what types of treatment work better.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is less common than Hodgkin disease in adolescents, but the risk of NHL increases as people age. There are many types of NHL. Some of the types most frequently observed in adolescents tend to grow rapidly and require intensive treatment, but also tend to respond better to treatment than older adults NHL.
For more information on these cancers, see our documents Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in children.
Leukemias
Leukemias are cancers of the bone marrow and blood. They are the most common cancers in children, but can occur at any age, and in fact, most of leukemia occur in older adults.
Most teenagers are leukemias types (fast-growing) acute and acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Leukemia can cause tiredness, weakness, pale skin, bruising or bleeding, fever, weight loss, bone and joint pain, and other symptoms.
The outlook for the most acute leukemia tends to be better the younger the patient.
For more information, see our documents Childhood Leukemia - Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia and - acute myeloid (myelogenous).
Thyroid cancer
The risk of thyroid cancer tends to increase as people age, but is often at a younger age than most adult cancers age. It is much more common in young women than young men.
The most common symptom of thyroid cancer is a lump in the front of the neck. Most thyroid tumors are not cancerous, but it is important to have them checked to be sure. Other symptoms of thyroid cancer may include pain or swelling in the neck, difficulty swallowing or breathing and voice changes.
The possibility of curing these cancers is usually very good.
For more information, see our document Thyroid Cancer.
Brain and spinal cord tumors
There are many types of brain tumors and spinal cord, and treatment and prospects of each is different. In children, most brain tumors begin in the lower parts of the brain such as the cerebellum (which coordinates movement) or brainstem (which connects the brain to the spinal cord). Adults are more likely to develop tumors in the upper parts of the brain. Tumors in adolescents may occur in any area. Spinal cord tumors are less common than brain tumors in all age groups.
Brain tumors can cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, blurred or double vision, dizziness, seizures, trouble walking or handling objects, and other symptoms.
For more information, see our documents brain and spinal cord tumors in children and brain and spinal cord tumors in adults.
Testicular cancer
Testicular cancer occurs most often in young men. About half of testicular cancers occur in men between the ages of 20 and 34, but can occur at any age, even in adolescence.
Very often, the first symptom of testicular cancer is a lump in the testicle or testicles inflamed or larger. Some testicular tumors can be painful, but most often they are not. It is important to lumps checked by a doctor as soon as possible so that the cause can be found.
Overall, the outlook for testicular cancers is very good, and most of these cancers can be cured.
For more information, see our document, Testicular Cancer.
Bone and soft tissue tumors (sarcomas)
Sarcomas are cancers that begin in the connective tissues such as muscle, bone or fat cells. There are 2 main types of sarcoma: bone sarcomas and soft tissue sarcomas (starting in the muscles, fat, blood vessels or some other body tissues). Sarcomas can occur at any age, but some types occur more often in older children and adolescents.
Bone sarcomas: The 2 most common types of bone cancer, osteosarcoma and Ewing's sarcoma are more common in adolescents. They often cause bone pain that worsens at night or with activity. They can also cause swelling in the area around the bone.
Osteosarcoma usually starts in areas where the bone is growing rapidly, as near the ends of long bones of the legs or arms. The most common Ewing sarcoma places to start are the bones of the pelvis, chest wall (such as the ribs or shoulder blades), or in the middle of the long bones of the leg.
For more information, see our documents osteosarcoma and Ewing family of tumors.
Soft tissue sarcomas: These cancers can start anywhere in the body, but often develop in the arms or legs. Rhabdomyosarcoma, a cancer that begins in cells that normally develop into skeletal muscles, is more common in children under 10, but it also can develop in adolescents and adults. Most other types of soft tissue sarcomas become more common as people age. Symptoms depend on where the sarcoma starts, and may include packages (which may or may not cause pain), bloating or intestinal problems.
For more information, see our documents and rhabdomyosarcoma sarcoma - soft tissue cancer in adults.
Melanoma
Although melanoma is more likely to occur in older adults, it is a cancer that is also found in younger people, including adolescents. In fact, melanoma is one of the most common cancers in people under 30 (especially younger women). Melanoma that runs in families may occur at an earlier age.
The most important signal warning for melanoma is a new spot on the skin or a spot that is changing in size, shape or color. One point that is different from everyone else in the skin can also be a warning and should be checked by a doctor.
The ability to cure a melanoma is usually very good if discovered and treated early. But if left alone, it can grow and spread quickly, which can make it much more difficult to treat.
For more information, see our document, Skin Cancer - melanoma.
Ovarian cancer
General cancer, ovarian cancer is much more common in older women. However, some types of ovarian cancer, known as germ cell tumors are more common in adolescents and young women.
Early ovarian cancer usually causes no symptoms, but some adolescents and young women may feel full quickly when eating or having abnormal swelling, belly pain, or urinary symptoms. If these symptoms last longer than a few weeks, they should be checked by a doctor.
Brain and spinal cord tumors in children
What are brain and spinal cord tumors in children?
Tumors of the brain and spinal cord are masses of abnormal cells in the brain or spinal cord that have grown out of control.
In most other parts of the body, it is very important to distinguish between benign (non-cancerous) and malignant (cancerous). Benign tumors do not invade nearby tissue or spread to distant areas, so in other parts of the body are almost never life threatening. One of the main reasons malignant tumors (cancers) are so dangerous is because they can spread throughout the body.
Although brain tumors rarely spread to other parts of the body, most of them can spread through the brain and spinal cord tissue. Even so-called benign tumors can, as they grow, press and destroy normal brain tissue, causing damage that often disabling and can sometimes cause death. That is why doctors usually speak of "brain tumors" rather than "brain cancers." The main concerns with brain tumors and spinal cord are how fast they grow, how easily spread through the rest of the brain or spinal cord, and if it can be removed or treated and did not return. But both benign and malignant tumors can be life threatening.
Brain and spinal cord tumors in children tend to be different from those of adults. Often they form in different places, develop from different cell types, and may have a different treatment and prognosis (outlook). This document only refers to the brain and spinal cord tumors in children. Tumors in adults are discussed in our brain tumors document and adult spinal cord.
The central nervous system
To understand the brain and spinal cord tumors, it helps to know about the normal structure and function of the central nervous system (CNS), which is the medical name for the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is the center of thought, feeling, memory, speech, vision, hearing, movement, and more. The spinal cord and special nerves in the head called cranial nerves carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body. These messages tell our muscles how to move, transmit information gathered by our senses, and help coordinate the functions of our internal organs.
The brain is protected by the skull. Also, the spinal cord is protected by the bones (vertebrae) of the spine.
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded and cushioned by a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is made by the choroid plexus, found in the spaces in the brain called ventricles. The ventricles and the spaces around the brain and spinal cord are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Parts of the brain and spinal cord
The main areas of the brain include the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem. Each area has a special function.
Brain: The brain is the largest, outside of the brain. It consists of two hemisferios (halves) and reasoning, thinking, emotion and language controls. It is also responsible for planned muscle movements (voluntary) (throw a ball, walking, chewing, etc.) and to take and interpret sensory information such as vision, hearing, smell, touch and pain.
The symptoms caused by a tumor in a cerebral hemisphere depend on the location of the tumor. Common symptoms include:
Seizures
Slurred speech
A change of mood such as depression
A change in personality
Weakness or paralysis on one side of the body
Changes in vision, hearing or other senses
Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located below the brain at the back of the brain. It helps to coordinate movement.
Cerebellar tumors can cause problems with coordination in walking; problems with the precise movements of the hands, arms, feet and legs; trouble swallowing or synchronized eye movements; and changes in the rate of speech.
Brainstem: The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord. It has bundles of very long nerve fibers that carry signals controlling muscles and sensation or feeling between the brain and the rest of the body. Special centers in the brain stem also help control breathing and heartbeat. Moreover, most of the cranial nerves (described below) starting at the brainstem.
The brain stem is divided into 3 main parts: the midbrain, pons and medulla.
Tumors in this critical area of the brain may cause weakness, muscle stiffness, or problems with sensation, facial movement or eye, ear, or swallowing. Double vision is a common early symptom of brain stem tumors, as are problems with coordination in walking. Because the brain stem is a small area that is so essential for life, it may not be possible to surgically remove tumors in this area.
Spinal cord: The spinal cord has bundles of very long nerve fibers that carry signals controlling muscles, sensation or feeling, and bladder and bowel control.
Tumors of the spinal cord can cause weakness, paralysis or numbness. The spinal cord is a narrow structure, so that develop tumors usually do not cause symptoms on both sides of the body (for example, weakness or numbness in the legs). This is different from the symptoms of most brain tumors, which often affect only one side of the body.
The nerves supplying arms leave the spinal cord in the neck (cervical spine). Nerves to the legs, intestines, bladder and spinal cord branch back (thoracic and lumbar spine). Tumors of the spinal cord in the neck (cervical spine) can cause symptoms in the arms and legs, as well as affect the function of the bowel and bladder. Tumors of the spinal cord below the neck only affect the legs and bowel and bladder function.
Cranial nerves: The cranial nerves extend directly from the base of the brain (as opposed to the output of the spinal cord). These nerves carry signals directly between the brain and face, eyes, tongue, mouth, and some other areas.
The most common tumors of the cranial nerves in children are called optical gliomas, which are tumors of the optic nerve (the largest nerve that runs between the brain and each eye). These tumors cause vision problems. Tumors that start in other cranial nerves can cause double vision; difficulty swallowing; loss of hearing in one or both ears; or facial paralysis, numbness or pain.
Types of cells and tissues in the brain and spinal cord
The brain and spinal cord are many types of tissues and cells that can develop into different types of tumors.
The neurons (nerve cells): These are the most important cells in the brain. Transmit chemical and electrical signals that determine thought, memory, emotion, speech, muscle movement, sensation, and almost everything else that the brain and spinal cord do. Neurons send these signals through their nerve fibers (axons). The axons in the brain tend to be short, while the spinal cord can be as long as several feet.
Unlike many other types of cells that can grow and divide to repair damage caused by injury or disease, neurons in the brain and spinal cord largely stop dividing about a year after birth (with some exceptions). Neurons do not usually form tumors, but can be damaged by tumors that start nearby.
Glial cells: Glial cells are supporting cells of the brain. Most brain tumors and spinal cord develop from glial cells. These tumors are known as a group called gliomas times.
There are 3 types of glial cells - astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and ependymal cells. A fourth cell type called microglia is part of the immune system and is not really a glial cell.
Astrocytes help support and nourish neurons. When the brain is injured, astrocytes form scar tissue that helps repair the damage. Main tumors from these cells are called astrocytomas or glioblastomas.
Oligodendrocytes make myelin, a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates the axons of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. This helps neurons send electrical signals through axons. Tumors starting in these cells are called oligodendrogliomas.
Ependymal cells lining the ventricles (fluid-filled areas) in the central part of the brain and the shape of the pathway through which the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flows. Tumors that begin in these cells are called ependymomas.
Microglia are the immune cells (fight infection) CNS.
Neuroectodermal cells: They are very early forms of nervous system cells, which are probably involved in the development of brain cells. They are found throughout the brain. The most common tumors that come from these cells are called medulloblastomas, which begin in the cerebellum.
Meninges: These are layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. The meninges help form the spaces through which CSF travels. The most common tumors that start in these tissues are called meningiomas.
Choroid plexus: The choroid plexus is the area of the brain within the ventricles that makes CSF, which nourishes and protects the brain. Tumors that start here include choroid plexus papillomas and carcinomas of the choroid plexus.
The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus: The pituitary gland is a small gland at the base of the brain. It is connected to a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. Both produce hormones that help regulate the activity of several other glands in the body.
Tumors of the brain and spinal cord are masses of abnormal cells in the brain or spinal cord that have grown out of control.
In most other parts of the body, it is very important to distinguish between benign (non-cancerous) and malignant (cancerous). Benign tumors do not invade nearby tissue or spread to distant areas, so in other parts of the body are almost never life threatening. One of the main reasons malignant tumors (cancers) are so dangerous is because they can spread throughout the body.
Although brain tumors rarely spread to other parts of the body, most of them can spread through the brain and spinal cord tissue. Even so-called benign tumors can, as they grow, press and destroy normal brain tissue, causing damage that often disabling and can sometimes cause death. That is why doctors usually speak of "brain tumors" rather than "brain cancers." The main concerns with brain tumors and spinal cord are how fast they grow, how easily spread through the rest of the brain or spinal cord, and if it can be removed or treated and did not return. But both benign and malignant tumors can be life threatening.
Brain and spinal cord tumors in children tend to be different from those of adults. Often they form in different places, develop from different cell types, and may have a different treatment and prognosis (outlook). This document only refers to the brain and spinal cord tumors in children. Tumors in adults are discussed in our brain tumors document and adult spinal cord.
The central nervous system
To understand the brain and spinal cord tumors, it helps to know about the normal structure and function of the central nervous system (CNS), which is the medical name for the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is the center of thought, feeling, memory, speech, vision, hearing, movement, and more. The spinal cord and special nerves in the head called cranial nerves carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body. These messages tell our muscles how to move, transmit information gathered by our senses, and help coordinate the functions of our internal organs.
The brain is protected by the skull. Also, the spinal cord is protected by the bones (vertebrae) of the spine.
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded and cushioned by a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is made by the choroid plexus, found in the spaces in the brain called ventricles. The ventricles and the spaces around the brain and spinal cord are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Parts of the brain and spinal cord
The main areas of the brain include the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem. Each area has a special function.
Brain: The brain is the largest, outside of the brain. It consists of two hemisferios (halves) and reasoning, thinking, emotion and language controls. It is also responsible for planned muscle movements (voluntary) (throw a ball, walking, chewing, etc.) and to take and interpret sensory information such as vision, hearing, smell, touch and pain.
The symptoms caused by a tumor in a cerebral hemisphere depend on the location of the tumor. Common symptoms include:
Seizures
Slurred speech
A change of mood such as depression
A change in personality
Weakness or paralysis on one side of the body
Changes in vision, hearing or other senses
Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located below the brain at the back of the brain. It helps to coordinate movement.
Cerebellar tumors can cause problems with coordination in walking; problems with the precise movements of the hands, arms, feet and legs; trouble swallowing or synchronized eye movements; and changes in the rate of speech.
Brainstem: The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord. It has bundles of very long nerve fibers that carry signals controlling muscles and sensation or feeling between the brain and the rest of the body. Special centers in the brain stem also help control breathing and heartbeat. Moreover, most of the cranial nerves (described below) starting at the brainstem.
The brain stem is divided into 3 main parts: the midbrain, pons and medulla.
Tumors in this critical area of the brain may cause weakness, muscle stiffness, or problems with sensation, facial movement or eye, ear, or swallowing. Double vision is a common early symptom of brain stem tumors, as are problems with coordination in walking. Because the brain stem is a small area that is so essential for life, it may not be possible to surgically remove tumors in this area.
Spinal cord: The spinal cord has bundles of very long nerve fibers that carry signals controlling muscles, sensation or feeling, and bladder and bowel control.
Tumors of the spinal cord can cause weakness, paralysis or numbness. The spinal cord is a narrow structure, so that develop tumors usually do not cause symptoms on both sides of the body (for example, weakness or numbness in the legs). This is different from the symptoms of most brain tumors, which often affect only one side of the body.
The nerves supplying arms leave the spinal cord in the neck (cervical spine). Nerves to the legs, intestines, bladder and spinal cord branch back (thoracic and lumbar spine). Tumors of the spinal cord in the neck (cervical spine) can cause symptoms in the arms and legs, as well as affect the function of the bowel and bladder. Tumors of the spinal cord below the neck only affect the legs and bowel and bladder function.
Cranial nerves: The cranial nerves extend directly from the base of the brain (as opposed to the output of the spinal cord). These nerves carry signals directly between the brain and face, eyes, tongue, mouth, and some other areas.
The most common tumors of the cranial nerves in children are called optical gliomas, which are tumors of the optic nerve (the largest nerve that runs between the brain and each eye). These tumors cause vision problems. Tumors that start in other cranial nerves can cause double vision; difficulty swallowing; loss of hearing in one or both ears; or facial paralysis, numbness or pain.
Types of cells and tissues in the brain and spinal cord
The brain and spinal cord are many types of tissues and cells that can develop into different types of tumors.
The neurons (nerve cells): These are the most important cells in the brain. Transmit chemical and electrical signals that determine thought, memory, emotion, speech, muscle movement, sensation, and almost everything else that the brain and spinal cord do. Neurons send these signals through their nerve fibers (axons). The axons in the brain tend to be short, while the spinal cord can be as long as several feet.
Unlike many other types of cells that can grow and divide to repair damage caused by injury or disease, neurons in the brain and spinal cord largely stop dividing about a year after birth (with some exceptions). Neurons do not usually form tumors, but can be damaged by tumors that start nearby.
Glial cells: Glial cells are supporting cells of the brain. Most brain tumors and spinal cord develop from glial cells. These tumors are known as a group called gliomas times.
There are 3 types of glial cells - astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and ependymal cells. A fourth cell type called microglia is part of the immune system and is not really a glial cell.
Astrocytes help support and nourish neurons. When the brain is injured, astrocytes form scar tissue that helps repair the damage. Main tumors from these cells are called astrocytomas or glioblastomas.
Oligodendrocytes make myelin, a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates the axons of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. This helps neurons send electrical signals through axons. Tumors starting in these cells are called oligodendrogliomas.
Ependymal cells lining the ventricles (fluid-filled areas) in the central part of the brain and the shape of the pathway through which the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flows. Tumors that begin in these cells are called ependymomas.
Microglia are the immune cells (fight infection) CNS.
Neuroectodermal cells: They are very early forms of nervous system cells, which are probably involved in the development of brain cells. They are found throughout the brain. The most common tumors that come from these cells are called medulloblastomas, which begin in the cerebellum.
Meninges: These are layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. The meninges help form the spaces through which CSF travels. The most common tumors that start in these tissues are called meningiomas.
Choroid plexus: The choroid plexus is the area of the brain within the ventricles that makes CSF, which nourishes and protects the brain. Tumors that start here include choroid plexus papillomas and carcinomas of the choroid plexus.
The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus: The pituitary gland is a small gland at the base of the brain. It is connected to a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. Both produce hormones that help regulate the activity of several other glands in the body.
Brain and spinal cord tumors in adults
What are brain and spinal cord tumors?
Tumors of the brain and spinal cord are masses of abnormal cells in the brain or spinal cord that have grown out of control.
In most other parts of the body, it is very important to distinguish between benign (non-cancerous) and malignant (cancerous). Benign tumors do not grow into nearby tissues or spread to distant areas, so in other parts of the body are almost never life threatening. One of the main reasons of malignant tumors are so dangerous is because they can spread throughout the body.
Although brain tumors rarely spread to other parts of the body, most of them can spread through the brain tissue. Even so-called benign tumors can, as they grow, press and destroy normal brain tissue, causing damage that often disabling and sometimes fatal. For this reason, doctors usually speak of "brain tumors" rather than "brain cancers." The main concerns with brain tumors and spinal cord are easily propagated through the rest of the brain or spinal cord and can be removed if not return.
Tumors of the brain and spinal cord tend to be different in adults and children. They often form in different areas, develop from different cell types, and may have a perspective and a different treatment.
This document refers only to brain tumors and spinal cord. Tumors in children are discussed in our document brain and spinal cord tumors in children.
The central nervous system
To understand the brain and spinal cord tumors, it helps to know about the normal structure and function of the central nervous system (CNS), which is the medical name for the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is the center of thought, feeling, memory, speech, vision, hearing, movement, and more. The spinal cord and special nerves in the head called cranial nerves help carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body. These messages tell our muscles how to move, transmit information gathered by our senses, and help coordinate the functions of our internal organs.
The brain is protected by the skull. Also, the spinal cord is protected by the bones (vertebrae) of the spine.
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded and cushioned by a special liquid, called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is made by the choroid plexus, found in the spaces within the brain called ventricles. The ventricles and the spaces around the brain and spinal cord are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Parts of the brain and spinal cord
The main areas of the brain include the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem. Each of these parts has a special function.
Brain: The brain is the largest, outside of the brain. It has 2 hemisferios (halves) and controls reasoning, thought, emotion and language. It is also responsible for planned muscle movements (voluntary) (throw a ball, walking, chewing, etc.) and to take and interpret sensory information such as vision, hearing, smell, touch and pain.
The symptoms caused by a tumor in a cerebral hemisphere depend on the location of the tumor. Common symptoms include:
Seizures
Slurred speech
A change of mood such as depression
A change in personality
Weakness or paralysis on one side of the body
Changes in vision, hearing or other senses
Basal ganglia: The basal ganglia are structures deep within the brain that help control our muscle movements. Tumors or other problems in this part of the brain that normally cause weakness, but in rare cases can cause tremor or other involuntary movements.
Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located below the brain at the back of the brain. It helps to coordinate movement. Cerebellar tumors can cause problems with coordination in walking, difficulty with the precise movements of the hands, arms, feet and legs, trouble swallowing or timing of eye movements, and changes in rhythm of speech.
Brainstem: The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord. It contains bundles of very long nerve fibers that carry signals controlling muscles and sensation or feeling between the brain and the rest of the body. Special centers in the brain stem also help control breathing and heartbeat. In addition, most cranial nerves (which carry signals directly between the brain and face, eyes, tongue, mouth and other areas) start in the brain stem.
Tumors in this critical area of the brain may cause weakness, muscle stiffness, or problems with sensation, facial movement or eye, ear, or swallowing. Double vision is a common early symptom of brain stem tumors, as are problems with coordination in walking. Because the brain stem is a small area that is so essential for life, it may not be possible to surgically remove tumors in this area.
Spinal cord: The spinal cord has bundles of very long nerve fibers that carry signals controlling muscles, sensation or feeling, and bladder and bowel control.
Tumors of the spinal cord can cause weakness, paralysis or numbness. The spinal cord is a narrow structure, so within tumors usually cause symptoms on both sides of the body (for example, weakness or numbness in the legs). This is different from most brain tumors, which often affect one side of the body.
The nerves supplying arms start in the spinal cord in the neck (cervical spine). The nerves that branch out from the spinal cord of the legs, bowel and bladder are presented in the back (thoracic and lumbar spine). Most spinal cord tumors begin in the neck (cervical spine) and can cause symptoms in the arms and legs, as well as affect the function of the bowel and bladder. Tumors of the spinal cord below the neck only affect the legs and bowel and bladder function
Cranial nerves Cranial nerves extend directly from the base of the brain (as opposed to leaving the spinal cord). Tumors starting in cranial nerves may cause vision problems, difficulty swallowing, loss of hearing in one or both ears, or facial paralysis, numbness or pain.
Types of cells and tissues in the brain and spinal cord
The brain and spinal cord are many types of tissues and cells that can develop into different types of tumors.
The neurons (nerve cells): These are the most important cells in the brain. Transmit chemical and electrical signals that determine thought, memory, emotion, speech, muscle movement, sensation, and almost everything else that the brain and spinal cord do. Neurons send these signals through their nerve fibers (axons). The axons in the brain tend to be short, while the spinal cord can be as long as several feet.
Unlike many other types of cells that can grow and divide to repair damage caused by injury or disease, neurons in the brain and spinal cord largely stop dividing about a year after birth (with some exceptions). Neurons do not usually form tumors, but they are often damaged by tumors that start nearby.
Glial cells: Glial cells are supporting cells of the brain. Most brain tumors and spinal cord develop from glial cells. These tumors are sometimes referred to as gliomas.
There are 3 types of glial cells - astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and ependymal cells. A fourth cell type called microglia is part of the immune system and is not really a glial cell.
Astrocytes help support and nourish neurons. When the brain is injured, astrocytes form scar tissue that helps repair the damage. Main tumors from these cells are called astrocytomas or glioblastomas.
Oligodendrocytes make myelin, a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates the axons of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. This helps neurons send electrical signals through axons. Tumors starting in these cells are called oligodendrogliomas.
Ependymal cells lining the ventricles (fluid-filled areas) in the central part of the brain and the shape of the channel through which flows the LCR. Tumors that begin in these cells are called ependymomas.
Microglia are the immune cells (fight infection) CNS.
Neuroectodermal cells: They are very early forms of nervous system cells, which are probably involved in the development of brain cells. They are found throughout the brain, but often are not seen in the adult central nervous system. The most common tumors arising from these cells develop in the cerebellum and are called medulloblastomas.
Meninges: These are layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. CSF travels through the spaces formed by the meninges. The most common tumors that start in these tissues are called meningiomas.
Choroid plexus: The choroid plexus is the area of the brain within the ventricles that makes CSF, which nourishes and protects the brain.
The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus: The pituitary gland is a small gland at the base of the brain. It is connected to a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. Both produce hormones that help regulate the activity of several other glands in the body. For example, control the amount of thyroid hormone produced by the thyroid gland, the production and release of milk from the breasts, and the number of male or female hormones made by the testicles or ovaries. They also make growth hormone, which stimulates body growth, and vasopressin, which regulates water balance by the kidneys.
The growth of tumors in or near the pituitary or hypothalamus and surgery and / or radiotherapy in this area, may affect these functions. For example, tumors that begin in the pituitary gland sometimes make too much of a certain hormone, which can cause problems. On the other hand, a person may have low levels of one or more hormones after treatment and may need to take hormones to compensate for this.
Pineal gland: The pineal gland is not really part of the brain. It is, in fact, a small endocrine gland located between the cerebral hemispheres. It makes melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep, in response to changes in light. The most common tumors of the pineal gland are called pineoblastomas.
Blood-brain barrier: The lining of the small blood vessels (capillaries) in the brain and spinal cord create a very selective barrier between the blood and tissues of the central nervous system. This barrier normally helps maintain the metabolic balance of the brain and keeps harmful toxins from entering the brain. Unfortunately, it also keeps out most chemotherapy drugs used to kill cancer cells, which in some cases limits their usefulness.
Tumors of the brain and spinal cord are masses of abnormal cells in the brain or spinal cord that have grown out of control.
In most other parts of the body, it is very important to distinguish between benign (non-cancerous) and malignant (cancerous). Benign tumors do not grow into nearby tissues or spread to distant areas, so in other parts of the body are almost never life threatening. One of the main reasons of malignant tumors are so dangerous is because they can spread throughout the body.
Although brain tumors rarely spread to other parts of the body, most of them can spread through the brain tissue. Even so-called benign tumors can, as they grow, press and destroy normal brain tissue, causing damage that often disabling and sometimes fatal. For this reason, doctors usually speak of "brain tumors" rather than "brain cancers." The main concerns with brain tumors and spinal cord are easily propagated through the rest of the brain or spinal cord and can be removed if not return.
Tumors of the brain and spinal cord tend to be different in adults and children. They often form in different areas, develop from different cell types, and may have a perspective and a different treatment.
This document refers only to brain tumors and spinal cord. Tumors in children are discussed in our document brain and spinal cord tumors in children.
The central nervous system
To understand the brain and spinal cord tumors, it helps to know about the normal structure and function of the central nervous system (CNS), which is the medical name for the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is the center of thought, feeling, memory, speech, vision, hearing, movement, and more. The spinal cord and special nerves in the head called cranial nerves help carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body. These messages tell our muscles how to move, transmit information gathered by our senses, and help coordinate the functions of our internal organs.
The brain is protected by the skull. Also, the spinal cord is protected by the bones (vertebrae) of the spine.
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded and cushioned by a special liquid, called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is made by the choroid plexus, found in the spaces within the brain called ventricles. The ventricles and the spaces around the brain and spinal cord are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Parts of the brain and spinal cord
The main areas of the brain include the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem. Each of these parts has a special function.
Brain: The brain is the largest, outside of the brain. It has 2 hemisferios (halves) and controls reasoning, thought, emotion and language. It is also responsible for planned muscle movements (voluntary) (throw a ball, walking, chewing, etc.) and to take and interpret sensory information such as vision, hearing, smell, touch and pain.
The symptoms caused by a tumor in a cerebral hemisphere depend on the location of the tumor. Common symptoms include:
Seizures
Slurred speech
A change of mood such as depression
A change in personality
Weakness or paralysis on one side of the body
Changes in vision, hearing or other senses
Basal ganglia: The basal ganglia are structures deep within the brain that help control our muscle movements. Tumors or other problems in this part of the brain that normally cause weakness, but in rare cases can cause tremor or other involuntary movements.
Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located below the brain at the back of the brain. It helps to coordinate movement. Cerebellar tumors can cause problems with coordination in walking, difficulty with the precise movements of the hands, arms, feet and legs, trouble swallowing or timing of eye movements, and changes in rhythm of speech.
Brainstem: The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord. It contains bundles of very long nerve fibers that carry signals controlling muscles and sensation or feeling between the brain and the rest of the body. Special centers in the brain stem also help control breathing and heartbeat. In addition, most cranial nerves (which carry signals directly between the brain and face, eyes, tongue, mouth and other areas) start in the brain stem.
Tumors in this critical area of the brain may cause weakness, muscle stiffness, or problems with sensation, facial movement or eye, ear, or swallowing. Double vision is a common early symptom of brain stem tumors, as are problems with coordination in walking. Because the brain stem is a small area that is so essential for life, it may not be possible to surgically remove tumors in this area.
Spinal cord: The spinal cord has bundles of very long nerve fibers that carry signals controlling muscles, sensation or feeling, and bladder and bowel control.
Tumors of the spinal cord can cause weakness, paralysis or numbness. The spinal cord is a narrow structure, so within tumors usually cause symptoms on both sides of the body (for example, weakness or numbness in the legs). This is different from most brain tumors, which often affect one side of the body.
The nerves supplying arms start in the spinal cord in the neck (cervical spine). The nerves that branch out from the spinal cord of the legs, bowel and bladder are presented in the back (thoracic and lumbar spine). Most spinal cord tumors begin in the neck (cervical spine) and can cause symptoms in the arms and legs, as well as affect the function of the bowel and bladder. Tumors of the spinal cord below the neck only affect the legs and bowel and bladder function
Cranial nerves Cranial nerves extend directly from the base of the brain (as opposed to leaving the spinal cord). Tumors starting in cranial nerves may cause vision problems, difficulty swallowing, loss of hearing in one or both ears, or facial paralysis, numbness or pain.
Types of cells and tissues in the brain and spinal cord
The brain and spinal cord are many types of tissues and cells that can develop into different types of tumors.
The neurons (nerve cells): These are the most important cells in the brain. Transmit chemical and electrical signals that determine thought, memory, emotion, speech, muscle movement, sensation, and almost everything else that the brain and spinal cord do. Neurons send these signals through their nerve fibers (axons). The axons in the brain tend to be short, while the spinal cord can be as long as several feet.
Unlike many other types of cells that can grow and divide to repair damage caused by injury or disease, neurons in the brain and spinal cord largely stop dividing about a year after birth (with some exceptions). Neurons do not usually form tumors, but they are often damaged by tumors that start nearby.
Glial cells: Glial cells are supporting cells of the brain. Most brain tumors and spinal cord develop from glial cells. These tumors are sometimes referred to as gliomas.
There are 3 types of glial cells - astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and ependymal cells. A fourth cell type called microglia is part of the immune system and is not really a glial cell.
Astrocytes help support and nourish neurons. When the brain is injured, astrocytes form scar tissue that helps repair the damage. Main tumors from these cells are called astrocytomas or glioblastomas.
Oligodendrocytes make myelin, a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates the axons of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. This helps neurons send electrical signals through axons. Tumors starting in these cells are called oligodendrogliomas.
Ependymal cells lining the ventricles (fluid-filled areas) in the central part of the brain and the shape of the channel through which flows the LCR. Tumors that begin in these cells are called ependymomas.
Microglia are the immune cells (fight infection) CNS.
Neuroectodermal cells: They are very early forms of nervous system cells, which are probably involved in the development of brain cells. They are found throughout the brain, but often are not seen in the adult central nervous system. The most common tumors arising from these cells develop in the cerebellum and are called medulloblastomas.
Meninges: These are layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. CSF travels through the spaces formed by the meninges. The most common tumors that start in these tissues are called meningiomas.
Choroid plexus: The choroid plexus is the area of the brain within the ventricles that makes CSF, which nourishes and protects the brain.
The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus: The pituitary gland is a small gland at the base of the brain. It is connected to a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. Both produce hormones that help regulate the activity of several other glands in the body. For example, control the amount of thyroid hormone produced by the thyroid gland, the production and release of milk from the breasts, and the number of male or female hormones made by the testicles or ovaries. They also make growth hormone, which stimulates body growth, and vasopressin, which regulates water balance by the kidneys.
The growth of tumors in or near the pituitary or hypothalamus and surgery and / or radiotherapy in this area, may affect these functions. For example, tumors that begin in the pituitary gland sometimes make too much of a certain hormone, which can cause problems. On the other hand, a person may have low levels of one or more hormones after treatment and may need to take hormones to compensate for this.
Pineal gland: The pineal gland is not really part of the brain. It is, in fact, a small endocrine gland located between the cerebral hemispheres. It makes melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep, in response to changes in light. The most common tumors of the pineal gland are called pineoblastomas.
Blood-brain barrier: The lining of the small blood vessels (capillaries) in the brain and spinal cord create a very selective barrier between the blood and tissues of the central nervous system. This barrier normally helps maintain the metabolic balance of the brain and keeps harmful toxins from entering the brain. Unfortunately, it also keeps out most chemotherapy drugs used to kill cancer cells, which in some cases limits their usefulness.
adrenal cancer
What is adrenal cancer?
About the adrenal glands
The adrenal glands are small glands that sit atop each kidney. Kidneys are located inside of the upper abdomen.
The adrenal gland has two parts. The outer part, called the cortex, where the majority of tumors develop. The cortex function is to make certain hormones for the body. These hormones all have a similar chemical structure and are called steroids. They include:
Cortisol causes changes in metabolism that help the body deal with stress.
Aldosterone helps the kidneys regulate the amount of salt in the blood and helps regulate blood pressure.
Adrenal androgens are hormones that can become the most common forms of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone in other body parts. The amount of these hormones resulting from conversion of adrenal androgens is small compared to what is done in other body parts. The testes produce most of androgens (male hormones) in men. The ovaries produce most of the estrogens (female hormones) in women.
The inner part of the adrenal gland, called the core, is really an extension of the nervous system. Hormones nervous system such as norepinephrine and epinephrine (also called adrenaline) are made in the bone. Tumors and cancers arising in the adrenal medulla include pheochromocytomas (which are often benigna) and neuroblastomas.
This paper discusses tumors and cancers of the adrenal cortex. Not discussed the tumors of the adrenal medulla. Neuroblastomas are covered in a separate document.
Tumors of the adrenal cortex
There are 2 main types of tumors of the adrenal cortex: benign (non-cancerous) and malignant (cancers). Most of these tumors are benign and are called adenomas. Cancers of the adrenal cortex are rare. These 2 types of tumors can sometimes be difficult to distinguish when the cells were observed under a microscope. Although experienced pathologists (doctors who are trained to diagnose diseases by examining tissue under a microscope) can tell the difference in most cases, sometimes the only way to know with certainty that the tumor is a cancer is when it spreads. If it spreads to the lymph nodes or other organs and tissues, it is a cancer. Adenomas do not extend outside the adrenal gland.
Adrenocortical adenomas
Most tumors of the adrenal cortex are not cancer. They are benign tumors called adenomas. These tumors are small, usually less than 2 inches (5 centimeters) in diameter. They usually occur in one adrenal gland, but sometimes affect both.
Most people with adrenal adenomas have no symptoms and are not aware they have an adrenal tumor. Some of these adenomas are discovered by accident (of course) when CT or MRI of the abdomen are made due to a related health problem. About 5% of people who have an abdominal CT was found to have an adrenal tumor was not suspected. Many of these are functional, which means that produce adrenal hormones. Sometimes these tumors are known by the nickname incidentalomas because they are not causing problems and only found by accident.
Some adenomas produce too much adrenal steroid hormones. Sometimes, too much of the hormone can cause symptoms. Many symptoms related hormones adenomas are the same as those of adrenal carcinomas (cancers). These symptoms are discussed in the section, "The signs and symptoms of adrenal cancer." Adenomas are more likely than carcinomas produce high levels of aldosterone can cause high blood pressure.
Treatment: adenomas can be cured by removing the adrenal gland containing the adenoma. Some adrenal adenomas causing hormone-related symptoms can be effectively treated with medicines that block the production or action of these hormones. This may be the best treatment option for patients with other serious medical problems that may not be able to withstand a major operation.
Incidentalomas treatment depends on the possibility that there may be a cancer and whether or not it raise levels of hormones. Accidentally when an adrenal tumor is found, tests are often done to see if hormones are doing. If so, surgery often is recommended. Otherwise, surgery may be recommended only if it is likely to be a cancer. Small tumors are less likely to be cancer, and are often monitored but not treated. CT (or MRI) may be repeated in 6-24 months to see if the tumor has grown. If so, you may need to be removed. If you have not grown, hormone levels were observed in the coming years. If the tumor is still small and does not make any hormones, you may not need to be treated at all.
The remainder of this document refers only to adrenal cancers and adenomas not.
Cancer of the adrenal cortex
The type of cancer that develops in the cortex of the adrenal gland is called adrenocortical carcinoma. Also it is known as adrenocortical cancer (or carcinoma) or simply adrenal cancer. In this document, the term adrenal cancer is used to mean cancer that begins in the adrenal cortex.
Adrenal cancer most often is discovered when:
It is by accident on an imaging test done for something more.
It produces hormones that cause changes such as weight gain and fluid retention, precocious puberty in children, or excess facial or body hair growth in women.
Begins causing symptoms because it has gotten too big. Large tumors can put pressure on other organs in the abdomen, causing pain or a feeling of fullness. In general, adrenal cancers are much larger than adrenal adenomas. Adrenal tumor greater than 5 or 6 centimeters (about 2 to 2 1/2 inches) is assumed to be a cancer. In one study, the average size of an adrenal cancer was about 13 cm (or 5 inches).
Most cancers found in the adrenal gland and not start there are no adrenal cancers. Instead, they start in other organs or tissues, then (metastasis) spread through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands. For example, lung cancers, melanomas and breast cancers often spread to the adrenal glands. Even when other cancers spread to the adrenal glands; However, still they named after the place started and are treated as other cancers that begin in the same place. They are not considered adrenal cancer. Treatment described in our documents about these cancers.
About the adrenal glands
The adrenal glands are small glands that sit atop each kidney. Kidneys are located inside of the upper abdomen.
The adrenal gland has two parts. The outer part, called the cortex, where the majority of tumors develop. The cortex function is to make certain hormones for the body. These hormones all have a similar chemical structure and are called steroids. They include:
Cortisol causes changes in metabolism that help the body deal with stress.
Aldosterone helps the kidneys regulate the amount of salt in the blood and helps regulate blood pressure.
Adrenal androgens are hormones that can become the most common forms of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone in other body parts. The amount of these hormones resulting from conversion of adrenal androgens is small compared to what is done in other body parts. The testes produce most of androgens (male hormones) in men. The ovaries produce most of the estrogens (female hormones) in women.
The inner part of the adrenal gland, called the core, is really an extension of the nervous system. Hormones nervous system such as norepinephrine and epinephrine (also called adrenaline) are made in the bone. Tumors and cancers arising in the adrenal medulla include pheochromocytomas (which are often benigna) and neuroblastomas.
This paper discusses tumors and cancers of the adrenal cortex. Not discussed the tumors of the adrenal medulla. Neuroblastomas are covered in a separate document.
Tumors of the adrenal cortex
There are 2 main types of tumors of the adrenal cortex: benign (non-cancerous) and malignant (cancers). Most of these tumors are benign and are called adenomas. Cancers of the adrenal cortex are rare. These 2 types of tumors can sometimes be difficult to distinguish when the cells were observed under a microscope. Although experienced pathologists (doctors who are trained to diagnose diseases by examining tissue under a microscope) can tell the difference in most cases, sometimes the only way to know with certainty that the tumor is a cancer is when it spreads. If it spreads to the lymph nodes or other organs and tissues, it is a cancer. Adenomas do not extend outside the adrenal gland.
Adrenocortical adenomas
Most tumors of the adrenal cortex are not cancer. They are benign tumors called adenomas. These tumors are small, usually less than 2 inches (5 centimeters) in diameter. They usually occur in one adrenal gland, but sometimes affect both.
Most people with adrenal adenomas have no symptoms and are not aware they have an adrenal tumor. Some of these adenomas are discovered by accident (of course) when CT or MRI of the abdomen are made due to a related health problem. About 5% of people who have an abdominal CT was found to have an adrenal tumor was not suspected. Many of these are functional, which means that produce adrenal hormones. Sometimes these tumors are known by the nickname incidentalomas because they are not causing problems and only found by accident.
Some adenomas produce too much adrenal steroid hormones. Sometimes, too much of the hormone can cause symptoms. Many symptoms related hormones adenomas are the same as those of adrenal carcinomas (cancers). These symptoms are discussed in the section, "The signs and symptoms of adrenal cancer." Adenomas are more likely than carcinomas produce high levels of aldosterone can cause high blood pressure.
Treatment: adenomas can be cured by removing the adrenal gland containing the adenoma. Some adrenal adenomas causing hormone-related symptoms can be effectively treated with medicines that block the production or action of these hormones. This may be the best treatment option for patients with other serious medical problems that may not be able to withstand a major operation.
Incidentalomas treatment depends on the possibility that there may be a cancer and whether or not it raise levels of hormones. Accidentally when an adrenal tumor is found, tests are often done to see if hormones are doing. If so, surgery often is recommended. Otherwise, surgery may be recommended only if it is likely to be a cancer. Small tumors are less likely to be cancer, and are often monitored but not treated. CT (or MRI) may be repeated in 6-24 months to see if the tumor has grown. If so, you may need to be removed. If you have not grown, hormone levels were observed in the coming years. If the tumor is still small and does not make any hormones, you may not need to be treated at all.
The remainder of this document refers only to adrenal cancers and adenomas not.
Cancer of the adrenal cortex
The type of cancer that develops in the cortex of the adrenal gland is called adrenocortical carcinoma. Also it is known as adrenocortical cancer (or carcinoma) or simply adrenal cancer. In this document, the term adrenal cancer is used to mean cancer that begins in the adrenal cortex.
Adrenal cancer most often is discovered when:
It is by accident on an imaging test done for something more.
It produces hormones that cause changes such as weight gain and fluid retention, precocious puberty in children, or excess facial or body hair growth in women.
Begins causing symptoms because it has gotten too big. Large tumors can put pressure on other organs in the abdomen, causing pain or a feeling of fullness. In general, adrenal cancers are much larger than adrenal adenomas. Adrenal tumor greater than 5 or 6 centimeters (about 2 to 2 1/2 inches) is assumed to be a cancer. In one study, the average size of an adrenal cancer was about 13 cm (or 5 inches).
Most cancers found in the adrenal gland and not start there are no adrenal cancers. Instead, they start in other organs or tissues, then (metastasis) spread through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands. For example, lung cancers, melanomas and breast cancers often spread to the adrenal glands. Even when other cancers spread to the adrenal glands; However, still they named after the place started and are treated as other cancers that begin in the same place. They are not considered adrenal cancer. Treatment described in our documents about these cancers.
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